1. What is meant by ‘Second Urbanisation of India’?
The “Second Urbanisation” is the time, after about 1000 BCE, when many new towns grew in the Ganga plains and nearby areas. These towns had busy markets, new crafts, coins and strong rulers, so life became urban again after the old Harappan cities had disappeared.
2. Why were the janapadas and mahājanapadas an important development in India’s early history?
They were the first large kingdoms of north India. They joined many small clans together, built capitals with walls and moats, started regular taxes and coins, and encouraged farming, trade and new ideas like Buddhism and Jainism.
3. What kind of system of governance did they evolve?
Most mahājanapadas were monarchies ruled by a king helped by ministers and an elders’ council, but some, like Vajji and Malla, chose their rulers through a vote in a big assembly. These early assemblies were a simple form of democracy.
THINK ABOUT IT – Why so many mahājanapadas in the Ganga plains?
The Ganga plains are flat and very fertile, so farmers could grow extra food. Iron ore lay in nearby hills for better tools, and rivers were easy roads for trade. Good crops, iron and trade helped many kingdoms grow close together there.
LET’S EXPLORE – Map Work
A. Capitals of the four strongest states
| State | Ancient capital | Today’s city |
|---|---|---|
| Magadha | Rājagṛiha | Rajgir, Bihar |
| Kosala | Śhrāvastī | Sravasti, Uttar Pradesh |
| Vatsa | Kauśhāmbī | Near Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh |
| Avanti | Ujjayinī | Ujjain, Madhya Pradesh |
B. Names common to the Mahābhārata map and the mahājanapada map
Examples are Kuru, Panchāla, Kosala and Matsya. This shows that some places in the epic were real regions that lasted for many centuries.
LET’S EXPLORE – Two Phases of Urban Life
Tick ✔ or cross ✘ each square.
| Feature | First Urbanisation (Harappan) | Second Urbanisation (mahājanapadas) |
|---|---|---|
| Ganga plains | ✘ | ✔ |
| Monasteries | ✘ | ✔ |
| Literature | ✘ | ✔ |
| Trade | ✔ | ✔ |
| Warfare | ✘ | ✔ |
| Copper / bronze | ✔ | ✘ |
| Iron | ✘ | ✔ |
LET’S EXPLORE – Why divide work into groups?
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People can train well in one skill and do it better.
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Sharing jobs saves time and raises production.
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Leaders can plan big tasks, soldiers can protect, farmers can grow food, traders can move goods, builders can make roads.
So groups help a big society run smoothly.
Other jobs in the 1ˢᵗ millennium BCE
Doctors, potters, weavers, shipbuilders, carpenters, jewel-cutters, teachers, storytellers and dancers.
THINK ABOUT IT – Feeling equal
If someone is left out because of dress, food, language or family job, it hurts feelings. A fair society lets every child study, play and work without fear. Helping weaker groups, sharing resources and respecting all jobs reduce inequality.
End-of-Chapter “Questions and Activities”
1. What does Kauṭilya advise for a strong kingdom? Is it very different today?
He says the capital must have forts, water, good roads, fertile fields, mines, forests and cattle. A modern state still needs safe cities, food, water, transport and a strong economy, so the advice is mostly the same.
2. According to the text, how were rulers chosen in early Vedic society?
Early Vedic clans picked a rājā in a council (sabha or samiti). The elders discussed and chose a leader respected by the people.
3. If you were a historian, which sources would you use to study the mahājanapadas?
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Archaeological digs – city walls, pottery, coins show daily life.
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Old books – Vedic hymns, Buddhist and Jain texts name towns and kings.
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Inscriptions on stone – record laws or conquests.
Together, things and words give a full picture.
4. Why was iron so important for new cities?
Iron tools cut trees and ploughed heavy soil, so farmers grew more food. Iron weapons protected trade routes and kingdoms. More food and safety let towns grow quickly.